The Digha Nikaya describes a universe of countless world-systems arranged in hierarchical layers, each containing continents, oceans, and realms corresponding to different states of existence.
The Digha Nikaya, particularly in the Mahapadana Sutta (DN 14) and the Aggañña Sutta (DN 27), describes a cosmos organized into multiple world-systems called cakkavala. Each world-system is centered on Mount Meru, a massive mountain that rises from an ocean. Surrounding this central mountain are concentric rings of mountains and oceans, with four continents positioned at cardinal directions. The most important continent for humans is Jambudipa, located to the south, where our world exists.
These descriptions present a layered universe rather than a flat or spherical one in modern scientific terms. The cosmos extends vertically as well as horizontally, with various realms stacked above and below the human realm. This vertical arrangement corresponds to Buddhist cosmology's division into different planes of existence, from hell realms at the bottom to heavenly realms above.
According to the Digha Nikaya, each world-system contains four main continents separated by vast oceans. Beyond the known lands of Jambudipa lies Videha, Aparagoyana, and Uttarakuru, each with distinct characteristics and inhabitants. Mount Meru itself stands as the axis of this system, towering above all other mountains and surrounded by progressively larger concentric rings of mountains separated by oceans.
The descriptions emphasize vast distances and scales almost incomprehensible to human perception. The diameter of these oceans and mountains is measured in yojanas—a unit of distance equivalent to roughly 7 to 14 kilometers depending on the source. These enormous scales reflect the Buddhist view that the universe vastly exceeds human habitual perception and understanding.
The world-system is not merely a geographical arrangement but encompasses multiple planes of existence stacked vertically. Below the human realm lie the hell realms, depicted as places of intense suffering. The human realm itself occupies a middle position. Above exist various heavenly realms, with the Realm of the Four Great Kings positioned on Mount Meru itself, and higher celestial realms extending above.
The Digha Nikaya indicates that beings are born into different realms based on their karma from previous lives. This vertical cosmology is integral to understanding Buddhist concepts of rebirth and karma, as beings cycle through different realms according to their actions. The descriptions in the texts serve not primarily as literal geography but as a framework for understanding moral causation across existence.
The Digha Nikaya describes not merely one world-system but countless others existing simultaneously. The texts suggest these systems are arranged in vast collections, and that our world-system is merely one among infinite others. This concept appears in various suttas and emphasizes the enormity and multiplicity of the cosmos beyond individual worlds.
While the texts occasionally hint at this multiplicity, they provide limited detail about how these systems relate to each other or their total arrangement. The focus remains on understanding the structure of our own world-system and its implications for practice, rather than mapping an complete cosmological atlas.
Scholars debate whether the Digha Nikaya's descriptions should be understood as literal cosmography or as mythological frameworks meant to convey Buddhist teachings about scale, impermanence, and karmic consequence. Early Buddhist texts were composed in a pre-scientific context and reflect the geographical knowledge and cosmological assumptions of ancient India.
Different Buddhist traditions have interpreted these descriptions with varying literalism. Some traditions, particularly in Tibet and East Asia, developed elaborate commentarial traditions elaborating on these cosmological details. Others view the descriptions more symbolically, emphasizing their value in conveying Buddhist philosophical principles rather than precise physical reality. The practical purpose of these teachings—inspiring renunciation and proper ethical conduct—takes priority over their literal accuracy in Buddhist hermeneutics.